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"What we do know, however, is our relative risk for having a heart attack. What once was a mysterious death, which claimed people in their most productive years, has been "demystified" by science. No study has been more influential than that of the Framingham Heart Study. FRAMINGHAM After World War II, the National Heart Institute13 was created with a modest budget4 and a difficult mission." - T. Colin Campbell, Ph.D. and Thomas M. Campbell II, The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health (Get the book.)

"To help you assess these risk factors, the relative risk for each one is provided in Table 2. The relative risk tells us the statistical probability of a particular factor causing cancer, compared to women who do not have that risk factor. For example, smoking carries a relative risk of 3. This number means that women who smoke are three times more likely to develop cervical cancer than women who don't smoke. For another example, women who have low vitamin C levels are 6.7 times more likely to develop cervical cancer than women with sufficient vitamin C levels." - Michael T. Murray, N.D., Joseph E. Pizzorno, N.D., Encyclopedia of Natural Medicine, Revised Second Edition (Get the book.)

"Compared with patients who never used ginseng, regular users had a significantly reduced risk of death (~29% relative risk reduction) and had better psychological and social well-being. [American Journal Epidemiology 163:645-53, 2006] Another study conducted in China found ginseng plus another herbal ingredient was more effective than most drugs used to treat breast cancer." - Bill Sardi, You Don't Have to be Afraid of Cancer Anymore (Get the book.)

"In the concluding remarks of the 10-year study, researchers wrote that the relative risk for heart attack can be lowered by about 80 percent just by doing three things: eating plenty of fruits and vegetables, getting regular exercise, and avoiding smoking. Since cholesterol-lowering drugs have not been shown to lower the risk of heart attack, they were notably absent in the study's list of recommendations, much to the annoyance of the major statin producers. INTERHEART isn't the only large study that discovered the significance of the apo ratio." - Andreas Moritz, Timeless Secrets of Health & Rejuvenation: Unleash The Natural Healing Power That Lies Dormant Within You (Get the book.)

"Drug benefits are almost always described in terms of relative risk reduction rather than absolute risk reduction. Otherwise, pharmaceuticals would look rather unimpressive. Drug company research cannot be trusted, declares medical scientist In an article recently published [1996] in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Sir lain Chalmers warns that drug companies cannot be trusted until they change their reporting practices." - Mike Adams, Natural Health Solutions (Get the book.) "Drug ads, for example, typically claim benefits using relative risk rather than absolute risk. If two out of 100 women normally get breast cancer, and the number is dropped to one out of 100 women with the help of a particular drug, the advertising will loudly proclaim, "Drug X slashes breast cancer risk by 50 percent" (because one is 50 percent of two) and suggest that 100 percent of women should start taking it as a preventative therapy. In reality, the drug only helped one out of 100 women, and yet it probably produces toxic side effects in 25 out of 100 women." - Mike Adams, Natural Health Solutions (Get the book.)

"C experienced a 57% reduction in risk of dying of any cause and 62% reduced relative risk of dying of cancer when compared with individuals consuming low amounts of vitamin C and having blood plasma concentrations of 28 micromoles or less.6 A further study showed that, for every 500 microgram increase in blood serum vitamin C concentration, there was an 11% reduction in coronary heart disease and stroke prevalence." - Dr. Abram Hoffer, MD, FRCP (C) and Dr. Harold D. Foster, PhD, Feel Better, Live Longer with Vitamin B-3 (Get the book.)

"The relative risk of multiple organ failure was 0.43 (95% CI, 0.19-0.96). Patients in the antioxidant group required 1.2 fewer days in the ICU (95% CI, 0.81-1.5) and 0.4 fewer days in the hospital (95% CI: -0.2-1.0). There were no difference between groups in occurrence of renal failure, and there were no other adverse effects attributable to the antioxidants (Nathens et al, 2002)." - Thomson Healthcare, Inc., PDR for Herbal Medicines, Fourth Edition (Get the book.) "A significant decrease in relative risk of gastric cancer with fresh Ginseng extract intake (RR=0.19) was noted. There was also a significant positive dose-response relationship (Yun, 1996). Climacteric Syndrome A small 2006 clinical trial using Ginseng for menopausal hot flashes failed to find effectiveness for this use, notes a Journal of the American Medical Association review of alternatives to estrogen for the prevention of hot flashes (Tice, 2006)." - Thomson Healthcare, Inc., PDR for Herbal Medicines, Fourth Edition (Get the book.) "A case-control epidemiological study of 453 colon cancer and 365 rectal cancer patients compared the relative risk (RR) of developing colorectal cancer between the 2 groups. One group reported eating any amount of Tomatoes each week compared to those that ate none. The RR for the colon cancer group was 1.15 with a p for trend equal to 0.31. The RR for the rectal cancer patients groups was 1.03 with a p=0.84. The same cases were evaluated again using Tomato paste instead of Tomatoes as the criteria. The RR for the colon cancer group was 0.78 (p=0.12) and for the rectal cancer group the RR was 0." - Thomson Healthcare, Inc., PDR for Herbal Medicines, Fourth Edition (Get the book.)

"With this assumption, they found a lower-bound relative risk of 2.4 for congenital birth defects and 3.8 for major CNS malformations. In 181 women in the study 19—50 years old, there were 126 pregnancies, for a fertility rate of 0.7 births per woman per year.This seems very high, even in the absence of a control group, and may indicate a serious problem in the data. There may have been biases in the ascertainment of cases and confirmation of reported congenital malformations." - Devra Davis, The Secret History of the War on Cancer (Get the book.)

"FDA Freedom of Information Summary for POSILAC, 1994 "The relative risk of a treated animal showing signs of clinical mastitis during the treatment period was about 1.79 times that of a control animal." Kronfeld, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 204:116-130,1994 In the Monsanto toxicity study (Eppard et al, 1987), "the frequency of renal, pulmonary, mammary gland and joint lesions is related linearly to rBGH use up to 5 times the approved dose." Kronfeld, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assn." - Samuel S. Epstein, M.D., What's In Your Milk?: An Exposé of Industry and Government Cover-Up on the Dangers of the Genetically Engineered (rBGH) Milk You're Drinking (Get the book.)

"This means the relative risk was almost cut in half for men who chose surgery, but in hard numbers, only about three more patients in 100 experienced 10-year survival among those who underwent surgery, and these figures did not include those men who may have died of other causes. Furthermore, this was only a small study of less than 200 men, not sufficient to be used as a conclusive study to share with men considering treatment decisions. [New England Journal of Medicine 352: 1977-84, 2005] The report of a patient who underwent prostate gland removal and experienced recurrence of cancer 8." - Bill Sardi, You Don't Have to be Afraid of Cancer Anymore (Get the book.)

"A recent review of 359 studies of new treatments published in major medical journals found that the majority expressed and emphasized their results as "relative risk" reduction (Nuovo, "Reporting Number Needed to Treat and Absolute Risk Reduction in Randomized Controlled Trials," 2002). Since the "peer review" mechanism is not up to policing this abuse of statistics, the Last Well Person must do so. It's an issue that I return to repeatedly in the chapters that follow." - Nortin M. Hadler, The Last Well Person: How to Stay Well Despite the Health-Care System (Get the book.)

"However, the actual number of strokes prevented by taking Pravachol, or the absolute risk reduction, is calculated by subtracting 3.7 percent from 4.5 percent. So over the six years of the study there were 0.8 percent fewer strokes among the people who took Pravachol. In other words, if 1000 post-heart attack patients took Pravachol for a year, there would be about one less stroke. This didn't sound to me like a major finding." - John Abramson, Overdosed America: The Broken Promise of American Medicine (P.S.) (Get the book.)

"Serevent. In African Americans, who made up 17% of the study population, the study showed a statistically significantly greater number of respiratory-related deaths and life-threatening events. Many required intubation (a procedure in which a tube is put down the throat to enable a patient to breathe) related to respiratory causes (twenty vs. five for placebo, a fourfold increase). In addition, there was a more than fourfold increase in asthma-related deaths and life-threatening respiratory events in patients taking salmeterol over those taking placebo." - J. Douglas Bremner, Before You Take that Pill: Why the Drug Industry May Be Bad for Your Health (Get the book.)

"The sexual, urinary, and bowel functions of the volunteers were monitored, along with certain other aspects • Throughout this book the reader will come across terms such as odds ratio, hazard ratio, relative risk, and relative hazard, as well as terms such as risk reduction and hazard reduction. They are all statistical constructs. The various ratios are not synonymous, but they are close. I am using them in their formal sense, but the reader can treat them as synonymous. However, they demand close attention if one is to discern the degree to which they are meaningful." - Nortin M. Hadler, The Last Well Person: How to Stay Well Despite the Health-Care System (Get the book.)

"In the United States, for example, lifetime risk for men is one in two chances and for women it is one in three. relative risk refers to your chances of getting a particular cancer, and has to do with specific risk factors linked to that type of cancer. Different people have different relative risks because of their individual traits or exposures. Smokers, for example, are ten times more likely to get lung cancer than nonsmokers. Something that increases your relative risk is called a risk factor. Most risk factors are not as powerful as smoking." - Richard Harkness, The Natural Pharmacist: Your Complete Guide to Reducing Cancer Risk (Get the book.)

"It's half of my total risk of 5 per cent, so it's a 50 per cent relative risk reduction.) The many studies of the hazards of long-term low-dose aspirin therapy show that there may be a very small increase in the likelihood of intestinal bleeding, but the hazard is overwhelmed by the 2.5 per cent reduction in the absolute risk of death after a first heart attack. If you have had a heart attack, it makes sense to take a baby aspirin daily for the rest of your life." - Nortin M. Hadler, The Last Well Person: How to Stay Well Despite the Health-Care System (Get the book.)

"Taking these drugs along with an anti-platelet drug may reduce the relative risk of stroke, death, and myocardial infarction by 32%. The price for many of the anti-hypertensives is also about three dollars a day or $1000 per year. Another class of treatments are blood thinners called thrombin inhibitors. The main one is Warfarin, which is the main ingredient in rat poison. It acts by causing fatal hemorrhage in rats. In humans the dosage has to be adjusted very carefully by taking regular blood tests." - Mark Sircus, Transdermal Magnesium Therapy (Get the book.)

"Remember, a relative risk of 2 means the person is twice as likely to develop type 1 diabetes as someone with an RR of 1. If your RR is 0.75, you are 25 percent less likely to develop type 1 diabetes. Instructions For each of the following, please enter a 1 in the Score column if the risk factor does not apply. Otherwise, enter the risk number shown. (Note: Insert only one number for each factor.) FACTOR RISK SCORE 1 Family history of diabetes (parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes) 10 2 More than 20 percent above ideal body weight 7.5 3 A waist/hip ratio above 1." - Michael T. Murray, Beat Diabetes Naturally: The Best Foods, Herbs, Supplements, and Lifestyle Strategies to Optimize Your Diabetes Care (Get the book.)

"The chart demonstrates the spectacular reduction in risk of breast cancer produced by increasing sunlight exposure for those living in areas of high solar radiation.7 relative risk (RR) indicates the risk of breast cancer observed in women with differing degrees of lifetime sunlight exposure. The lowest sunlight exposure is given score of 1, which is the highest risk category for breast cancer. The other fractions represent the risk observed among those with greater sunlight exposure." - Marc Sorenson, Solar Power For Optimal Health (Get the book.)

"OR = 1.87) in individuals with the MnSOD Alal6Ala genotype and the Leul98Leu genotype of GPX-1, while neither surfaced as risk modifiers when considered independently [102]. Environmental factors may also dictate the importance of genetic polymorphisms in determining cancer risk. For example, the T-allele in the GPX-1 gene at position 198 is considered to be protective in smokers. In a study of smokers with 432 lung cancer cases and 366 controls, those possessing the variant T-allele were significantly less likely to develop lung cancer than individuals without it [103]." - Ann M. Coulston and Carol J. Boushey, Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease (Get the book.)

"Decreasing Breast-Cancer Risk with Increasing Sunlight Exposure in High Solar Radiation Areas, Expressed in relative risk (RR) • Low exposure ? Medium exposure High exposure Let's repeat the statistics on NMSC and melanoma: NMSC are easily removed, and regular sunlight exposure helps prevent melanoma. It is estimated that about 1,500 yearly deaths are attributable to common skin cancers. More than 40,000 yearly deaths are caused by breast cancer. Which is preferable, an easily-treated common skin cancer or a deadly breast cancer?" - Marc Sorenson, Solar Power For Optimal Health (Get the book.)

"BMI > 30 kg/m ) of 2.52. When compared to parallel meta-analyses conducted for cancers at other sites (i.e., cancers of the colon, gallbladder, kidney, prostate, and postmenopausal breast), Bergstrom et al. [79] concluded that the strongest association was between excess weight and cancer of the endometrium. This exceptionally strong association between excess body weight and endometrial cancer also was reported in a 2003 prospective cohort study (n = 495,477) by Calle and colleagues [216] who investigated cancer-related mortality of various sites in relation to body weight status (Figure 1)." - Ann M. Coulston and Carol J. Boushey, Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease (Get the book.) "The Lyon Diet Heart Study is the largest clinical trial to examine the effects of ALA on CVD [96, 97]. In this randomized secondary prevention trial, an AHA Step 1 Mediterranean dietary pattern (high in ALA) reduced cardiac death and nonfatal MI by approximately 70%, and all coronary events by about 50% despite no improvement in lipids and lipoproteins. The authors attributed the benefits to the 68% increase in ALA intake (~ 1.7 g/day) compared to the control group." - Ann M. Coulston and Carol J. Boushey, Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease (Get the book.)

"But this study massages the data to the same extent as the fish study above, to come up with significant reductions in relative risk. Absolute risk reduction is trivial (Rimm and colleagues, "Vegetable, Fruit and Cereal Fiber Intake and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease," 1996). • Fibre is good for women's hearts (Wolk and colleagues, "Long-Term Intake of Dietary Fiber and Decreased Risk of Coronary Heart Disease," 1999), though the science is as unconvincing as it is in the study on men." - Nortin M. Hadler, The Last Well Person: How to Stay Well Despite the Health-Care System (Get the book.)

"Using a relative risk model, Hoseyni (1992) calculated a lifetime risk for liver cancer of 2.5 per million per ng/kg body weight/day for aflatoxin Bj in hepatitis-negative individuals and 62 per million per ng/kg body weight/day in hepatitis-positive individuals. Wu-Williams et al. (1992) calculated a lifetime risk of primary hepatocellular carcinoma for males of 5.6 per million per ng/kg body weight/day using a multiplicative relative risk model, and 46 per million per ng/kg body weigh t/day using an interactive risk model." - Committee on Comparative Toxicity of Naturally Occurring Carcinogens, Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human: A Comparison of Naturally Occurring and Synthetic Substances (Get the book.) "On the additive and multiplicative models of relative risk. Biom. J. 31:359-370. Kodell, RL., D.W. Gaylor, and J.J. Chen. 1990. Carcinogenic potency correlations: Real or artifactual? J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 32:1-9. Kodell, RL, D. Krewski, and J.M. Zielinski. 1991. Additive and multiplicative relative risk in the two-stage clonal expansion model of carcinogenesis. Risk Anal. 11:483-490. Kohn, M.C., and C.J. Portier. 1993. Effects of the mechanism of receptor-mediated gene expression on the shape of the dose-response curve. Risk Anal. 13(5):565-572. Kolonel, EN., A.M.Y. Nomura, M.W." - Committee on Comparative Toxicity of Naturally Occurring Carcinogens, Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human: A Comparison of Naturally Occurring and Synthetic Substances (Get the book.)

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